辛亥革命の空間構造 |
The Regional Structure of the 1911 Revolution |
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辛亥革命は文化の空間構造からめて、そうした中国史を貫く二つの力強い線の交錯と相克のダイナミズムを現出せしめた一つの歴史的事件であった。政治的には、清帝退位と共和国家を勝ち取ったという点で南方の革命派の勝利ということもできるが、多民族複合国家を継承したという点では北方の立憲派の目標が実現したと言うこともできる。辛亥革命が示した南北二つの異質な文化の力の比べ合いは、活力に満ちた中国政治のダイナミズムをもたらした。そして、これからも同じように、中国史の動向を規定する多元的で複合的な文化環境を提供し続けることだろう。 |
Viewed in terms of its regional structure, the historical event that was the 1911 Revolution produced a dynamism of these two strong intertwined and conflicting threads running through Chinese history. We can say that politically, the southern revolutionaries won the abdication of the emperor and the establishment of the republic, but we can also say that the northern constitutionalists achieved their aim of continuing the legacy of a multiethnic nation. The contest of strength between the contrasting cultures of north and south seen in the 1911 Revolution unleashed an active dynamism in Chinese politics. In the future as well, we can expect China’s multiethnic complex cultural environment to determine the course of Chinese history. |
イスラームの死生観と馬復初の来世観 |
The Islamic View of Life and Death and Ma Dexin’s View of the Afterlife |
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馬復初は次のようにいう、「人間の霊気をたとえればスルターン（君主、王侯の意）のようなものである。身体はその領地であり、身体の諸部分諸器官はその兵隊や召使である。諸能力、すなわち外的感覚と内的感覚は将軍や大臣である。（このスルターンには）誠実な大臣がいる。それはすなわち理性であるが、（他方には）偽善的な大臣もいる。それは欲望である。それは外界における兵士の忠実なものである。その手には外界と軍旗を恣意的に使う力がある。しかしながら、欲望は頑迷な独裁者であり、征服と支配を好み、圧政と不正を好む。これに対し、スルターン（霊気を指す）は親切と穏健と寛大と正義と正しいことを好む。」 |
Ma Dexin wrote as follows: “A person’s spirit may be likened to a king. His body is the kingdom, and the parts and organs of his body are the soldiers and servants. His abilities, that is, his external senses and internal senses, are the generals and ministers. [The king] needs sincere ministers, and these are reason. But there are also sycophant ministers, and these are the desires. The desires are also loyal soldiers operating on the field in the external world. They are the force that wantonly uses the external world and the army’s standard (flag). But the desires are obstinate tyrants that like subjugating and controlling, and enjoy tyranny and injustice. In contrast, the king (spirit) likes kindness, moderation, magnanimity, justice, and what is right.” |
清朝からカザフに授与された爵位 |
Titles of Kazakh Sultans Bestowed by the Qing Empire |
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カザフに与えられた爵位は、以下の通りで、清朝との関係に応じて位が高い順である：汗、王、公、台吉であった。嘉慶年間の編纂と推定される『総統伊犂事宜』によれば、「哈薩克には、汗・王・公・台吉が有り、世相承襲し、以って其の遊牧を理する」とある。つまりカザフが清朝から受けた爵位は汗、王、公、台吉の四種であり、世襲により受け継がれるものだった。ただし、非世襲の爵位もあったことが知られている。次の表は同じ『総統伊犂事宜』が示す、爵位を受けた各「部」のハン一族である。なお、清朝史料上では、カザフは左・右・西の三「部」として認識されたが、それは、部族連合である3ジュズの地理的分布とハン一族の家系の違いとの混同に基づいていた。 |
The Qing court bestowed on the Kazakhs the following titles of nobility (from higher to lower rank, depending on relations with the Qing court): han (the Chinese rendering of “khan”), prince (wang), duke (gong), and gentry (taiji). According to the Zongtong Yili shiyi (Matters Concerning Control of Ili), compiled during the Jiaqing period (1796–1820), “In Kazakh there were hans, princes, dukes, and gentry, all passed on hereditarily. By means of this system, order was brought to the nomads of the area.” Thus, the Kazakhs received four titles from the Qing court—han, prince, duke, and gentry—and these were passed on from one generation to the next. However, there were also nonhereditary titles. The following table shows the succession of titles within the khan clans of the four provinces. In the Qing historical sources, there are three recognized provinces—the Left, Right, and West Provinces—but these provinces were based on a confusion of the geographical distribution of the three jüzes (“hordes,” or divisions of the Kazakh nation) and the khan clan lineages. |
日本漢学：内藤湖南が杜佑の『通典』を
論じる |
Japanese Sinology: Naitō Konan on Du You’s Comprehensive Collection of Laws and Regulations |
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周知のように、『通典』は食貨・選挙・職官・礼・楽・兵・刑・州郡・辺防などに関する歴代制度の変遷を二〇〇巻にわたって詳述する名著であり、杜佑の「三十余年苦心の結果」として編纂されたものである。それまでの漢書進講の大半が儒教の経典に関するものであったことに対して、晩年の湖南はこの中国古代制度史の名著を講書のテキストとして取り上げ、しかもそれに現れている杜佑の実学精神、進歩史観および近代西洋の民俗学にも通ずるその先駆的研究手法を称えていた。 |
As is well known, Tong dian, on which Du You spent over 30 years arduously compiling, is a 200-volume work describing in detail historical changes in the economy, the selection process, offices of government, rites, music, the military, punishments, administrative divisions, border defense, etc. Up until that time, most of the imperial lectures on Chinese works were on Confucian classics, but Konan, late in life, selected this famous work on the history of the Chinese early-imperial system, and he praised Du You for the practical scholarship, progressive view of history, and pioneering methodology anticipating the methods of modern Western ethnology that appeared in this work. |
古代教育：朱熹「諭諸生」 |
Traditional Education: Zhu Xi, “Instructions for Students” |
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学校の官は、教養の名有れども、之を教え之を養うの実無し。学ぶ者は筴を挟みて相い与に其の間に嬉れ、其の傑然たる者は乃ち禄を干め利を蹈むを以て事と為すを知る。聖賢の余旨を語り、学問の本原を究むるに至っては、則ち罔乎として其の心を用うる所以の者を知らず。其の規為動息は、挙げて以て凡民に異なる無く、而も甚だしき者有り。嗚呼、此れ教うる者の過ちなり。而して豈に学ぶ者の罪ならんや。 |
Faculty at the government schools have titles suggesting teaching and fostering students, but they do not function in this capacity. Students conceal notes on themselves and play during their time there. Outstanding students make it their business to land high-paying government positions. But when it comes to discussing the teachings of sages and worthies, to pursuing the original intent of education, all are at a total loss. Their behavior and attitude are no better than those of commoners, and some are even worse. Alas, this is the teachers’ fault. How can it be the students’ fault? |
陶磁器：呉州赤絵 |
Ceramics: Japanese red-design Swatow ware |
その器形をみると、最も多いのは大小の皿で、とくに径が三十センチをこえる大皿（盤）がめだって多い。たいがい平鉢ともいわれるような深めの大皿で、縁を鍔状に平らにのばしたもの、わずかに折り曲げたもの、まっすぐ立上がらせたものなど、いくつかの形式がある。小皿は五客、十客のセットで日本に伝わったものがあるが、大皿にくらべるとはるかに少量である。茶道具として喜ばれるのは鉢と香合で、菓子器としての鉢は、内面見込みのもようから玉取獅子、魁手、尾長鳥、魚手、麒麟手などと区別されている。また香合は赤玉丸、四方入角、菊兎、酒会、平丸などがあって、とくに小ぶりの赤玉小丸は数が少ないため声価が高いといわれる。大ぶりの壷や花瓶、徳利などのいわゆる袋物もいくらかあるが、皿にくらべるとごく少量である。水注や香炉などの複雑な器形や、碗・盃のような小品はごく稀で、器種はおよそ限られているといってよい。
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The most common shapes were large and small plates. Large plates over thirty centimeters in diameter were especially common. Generally, these large plates were deep enough to be called flat bowls, but there were several types of shapes. Some large plates had flat, extended rims like Japanese sword guards, others had rims that were slightly curved, and still others had rims that stood straight up. Small plates were transmitted to Japan in sets of five or ten, and are much less common than large plates. Items favored for tea ceremony were deep bowls and incense cases. Deep bowls used as containers for sweets had designs of a lion playing with the celestial sphere, a portent symbol, long-tailed birds, fish, and qilin (deerlike legendary animals). Some incense cases had shapes of square boxes with indented corners or wine jars or flat round cases; some had designs of a large red circle (akadama) or a rabbit and chrysanthemums. Especially valued, because they were rare, were small incense cases with a small red circle. There were many other types of vessels, such as jugs, vases, and wine servers, but they were few in number compared to plates. Complex shapes, such as pitchers and incense burners, and small items, such as bowls and cups, were extremely rare. It is thus safe to say that the types of pieces were limited. |
浮世絵師：北斎 |
Ukiyo-e artist: Hokusai |
風景画家として名声と実力を得た北斎は、70歳を超えて、富士山を主題とした風景画36枚組の浮世絵の製作に入った。これが北斎の最高傑作となる「富岳36景」である。実際には、10枚が加えられ、46枚となった大きなシリーズであった。北斎は、あらゆる場所から富士山を見ながら、近景にはそれぞれの土地の特色と、働く人物の姿を描き込むことによって、自然と人間の関わりを描いたのである。中でも逆巻く波の中に富士山を配した、「神奈川沖波裏」は、その大胆な構図で評判を呼んだ。北斎は海景に興味を持っており、「千絵の海・総州銚子」や、「上総の海路」などの海と船を描いた作品が多い。
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Hokusai, who developed fame and talent as a landscape artist, began working on views of Mount Fuji when he was over seventy. This work became Hokusai’s chef d’oeuvre Fugaku sanjūrokkei (Thirty-six views of Mount Fuji). In fact, ten more drawings were added to produce a series of forty-six drawings. In this work Hokusai produced views of Mount Fuji in the distance from all sorts of places, and in the foreground he drew the special features of the place and figures of people at work, thus displaying an intimate connection between nature and people. Among these drawings Kanagawa oki nami ura (The great wave off Kanagawa) earned him especial fame for its bold composition of Mount Fuji in the midst of breaking waves. Hokusai had an interest in seascapes, producing many drawings of boats and the sea, such as Sōshū Chōshi (a place near Edo) from the series Sen e no umi (A thousand pictures of the sea) and Kazusa no kairo (The sea lane near Kazusa Province) from the series Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji. |
日本画の個性主義 |
Individualism in Japanese painting |
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「風は自然界のフルート、木々を巡り、水面を渡りメロディーを奏でる。」これは『荘子』の斉物論篇に載る万竅怒号（古木の幹にある穴に風が吹き音をたてる）から出ている。邪魔な木（儒教でいう制度、習慣など）は避けて自由に吹き種々音を奏でる。同じように人間感情も、何物かの暗示によって生起する。その何物かが宇宙の支配者で道（老子のいうみち、ダオ）である。ここから、芸術家の最大の特権は自由であり、そこに個性が生まれるという天心の考えが、理念として胸裡を支配した。 |
“The wind is the flute of the natural world. It rustles through the trees and crosses over the water, playing a melody.” This quote is based on a passage from chapter 2, “Qiwulun” (On Regarding All Things Equally), of Zhuangzi (fourth century BCE) that goes, “The wind whistles in the hollows of the gnarled trees.” Zhuangzi’s point is that just as the wind blows freely around the trees, producing various sounds, so human emotions, despite obstacles such as Confucian systems and customs, arise at the suggestion of an external force. That external force is the Way (dao) of Laozi, the force that controls the cosmos. Hence, the greatest prerogative of the artist is the exercise of freedom, and from his exercise of freedom, the artist gives expression to his individuality. This was the ideal that dominated Tenshin’s thought. |
日本刀の変遷 |
A history of Japanese swords |
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平安時代後期から、いま私たちが普通に見る太刀、すなわち反りのある「鎬造（しのぎづくり）」のものがあらわれました。元幅（もとはば）が広く先幅（さきはば）は狭く、腰反（こしぞ）り・踏張（ふんば）りが強いものです。太刀は総じて細身で、茎（なかご）から腰元（こしもと）のあたりで強く反り、元幅に比べて先幅が著しく狭くなり、先端部が小鋒（こきっさき）になります。 |
Late in the Heian period (794–1192), there appeared the familiar Japanese long sword (tachi), that is, a sword with a ridge running along the length of its curved body. This sword is broad at the base and narrow at the tip, making the sword well planted. The curve is most pronounced at the base. Generally, long swords have a slender body and are considerably curved from the tang (or hilt insert) to the base of the blade. The width toward the tip is considerably narrower than the width at the base, and the tip becomes a sharp point. |
海軍史：東郷平八郎 |
Japanese naval history: Tōgō Heihachirō |
 ロシア海軍は、この情勢を挽回するために、太平洋第2艦隊、第3艦隊（バルチック艦隊）を10月15日バルチック海のリバウを出航させ、浦塩へ向かわせた。1905年5月27日、東郷は、戦艦4隻以下107隻の艦隊（水雷艇41隻）を率いて、対馬沖で戦艦8隻以下38隻のバルチック艦隊を迎え撃ち、19隻を撃沈、5隻を拿捕した。日本側の損害は水雷艇3隻であった。この驚くべき勝利によって日露戦争は日本の勝利に終わり、東郷は国民的英雄となった。そして、東郷は生きたまま神格化されるに至った。この結果、東郷自身に政治的野心は無かったが、日本海軍内部のいわゆる艦隊派（軍縮反対派）は、東郷の名声を利用してロンドン海軍軍縮条約の反対活動をした。このために、日本海軍は内部分裂を来たすという、望ましくない結果を生じた。 |
To recover the situation, the Russian Navy, on October 15, dispatched the Second Pacific Squadron (the Baltic Fleet) from the Libau Naval Base on the Baltic Sea to Urashio, later joined by the Third Pacific Squadron. On May 27, 1905, in the Tsushima Strait, Tōgō, commanding 4 battleships with a fleet of 107 vessels and 41 torpedo boats, met 8 Russian battleships with 38 vessels from the Baltic Fleet. The Japanese side sank 19 vessels and captured 5. Japan lost 3 torpedo boats. The surprise victory ended the Russo-Japanese War in Japan’s favor, and Tōgō became a national hero. Even while still alive, Tōgō became deified and entered the Shinto pantheon. Though Tōgō had no political ambitions, the so-called fleet advocates (who opposed military reductions) used his name in their opposition to the International Treaty for the Limitation and Reduction of Naval Armament (the London Naval Treaty) of 1930. This brought about an unfortunate internal division within the Japanese Navy. |
